Procrastination Device

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http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/manfred-lancia.html

Matthew Paris and an Italian Franciscan named Salimbene di Adam both wrote in their histories that there was a last-minute marriage between Frederick and Bianca when Frederick was on his deathbed. When Manfred was born, however, Bianca was not married to Frederick, and so Manfred is considered an illegitimate, or "natural" son of the emperor.

Frederick certainly considered Manfred his son, with all the privileges a son of the emperor should have. Frederick's will named Manfred as Prince of Taranto, the "heel" of the Italian peninsula (dark green in the illustration) which was part of the area known as the Regno (the island of Sicily and the southern part of Italy). Frederick's son Conrad IV  by Isabella II of Jerusalem was named king of Germany and Italy and Sicily. Manfred was a vassal of Conrad and would act as regent in Sicily when Conrad was away.

When Frederick died in 1250, Manfred worked to quell any unrest, and tried to repair the relationship with Pope Innocent IV, who had clashed with Frederick over many issues and felt that the Regno was a danger to the Papal States and should revert to papal control. Innocent was not inclined to be nice to that dynasty, however.

Conrad arrived in the Regno in 1252 and quickly asserted his authority, taking fiefs away from Manfred and reminding him that he only had authority in Taranto.

Conrad had a young son born in 1252, also named Conrad but referred to as "Conradin" or "Conrad the Younger" to distinguish him from his father. Conrad the father asked the pope to be Conradin's guardian, along with a German baron, Berthold of Hohenberg.

Conrad died from malaria in 1254 and Manfred declared himself in control of Sicily, clashing with Innocent. Innocent agreed to recognize Conradin as the legitimate heir to Sicily and have Manfred be Conradin's regent, but Innocent was still Conradin's guardian. Once this was settled, Innocent made clear what he thought of Manfred by excommunicating him.

This would not be the only excommunication Manfred would suffer, but he wasn't going to accept his fate with humility. He decided the best course of action was to strike back at the pope. We'll see how that worked out for him tomorrow.

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http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/charles-and-sicily-part-4.html

Conradin, convinced by supporters of his uncle, Manfred of Sicily (who had just been killed in battle against Charles) to assert a right to the throne and fight, had left Bavaria and come to Italy, where he invaded Abruzzo (in the middle of the peninsula).

Charles' Guelph forces met Conradin's Ghibelline forces on 23 August 1268 on the plains outside the town of Tagliacozzo. Conradin had greater numbers, but Charles had been advised to keep a French division hidden over a hill to provide a surprise with fresh forces, if necessary.

The tactic proved valuable. It looked like Conradin's forces were winning. The killing of a man in armor that they thought was Charles heartened Conradin's people, and they pursued the retreating soldiers of Charles, thinking that they were now just easily going to round up the leaderless enemy. Then Charles released his French soldiers from hiding.

This fresh force ran through the unsuspecting and already worn troops of Conradin, who fled to Rome with many of his men. He decided to get to Sicily, so left Rome for the coast. He was captured before he could embark for the island, imprisoned in Naples, and then put on trial for treason.

Conradin was pronounced guilty and he, along with his close friend Frederick I, Margrave of Baden, was beheaded on 29 October (see illustration). Their remains were buried quickly. Conradin's mother, Elizabeth of Bavaria, pleaded successfully for a proper burial, and the remains were moved to the church of the monastery of Our Lady of Mt. Carmel at Naples, founded by Elizabeth.

With Conradin's death, the direct male line of the Hohenstaufens, the "People on the High Hill," came to an end. Also, since Conradin had been the heir to the title King of Jerusalem, that title was up for grabs, which has been discussed at length recently. It ultimately went to no other than Conradin's executioner, Charles of Anjou!

Leaving Charles for now...does all this mean that the Hohenstaufens were no longer associated with Sicily? Actually, believe it or not, there was Sicilian royalty not long after from the Hohenstaufen line. To understand this turn of fate, we have to take another look at the man who was named as Conradin's regent by Elizabeth of Bavaria but who usurped the title for himself, Conradin's uncle Manfred.

Tomorrow we'll examine his choices and the consequences that led to his death but led to a throne for his offspring.

http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/charles-and-sicily-part-4.html

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http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/the-muslims-of-lucera.html

Sicily had once been under Muslim rule, and pockets of resistance wanted to restore it to Muslims. Frederick, of course, wanted to change this. The ultimate solution was to get as many Muslims as possible together and put them in one out-of-the-way place. In 1220 Frederick began the process of getting all Muslims out of Sicily.

He relocated some 20,000 Muslims to Lucera in 1224. (The illustration is Fredrick's castle in Lucera.) There were also settlements in Girifalco and Acerenza all in southern Italy. These settlements also contained Jews, but had few to no Christians. They created Muslim schools, a mosque, and even had their qadi, a Shari'a court for judging disputes. Attempts to convert Lucera to Christianity by Dominicans failed.

They were treated as regular towns, and so paid their taxes and supplied men for the army when called to do so. Judging from the percentage of men they were able to supply for Frederick's military, the Muslim settlements probably numbered 60,000 all together.

By 1234, Lucera was one of the chief trade fairs authorized by Sicily. There were seven trade fairs in the Regno under Frederick, running from 24 June to 1 July each year. Muslims were skilled farmers and bee-keepers who produced honey, and they were allowed to participate in any of the trade fairs in the Regno except in Sicily.

In 1239, some Muslims from Lucera tried to return to their native home of Sicily, but every one who arrived in Sicily was re-exiled.

Manfred of Sicily used Luceran Muslim archers when he was being attacked by Charles of Anjou. When Charles conquered Sicily, Lucera resisted the change of regime, but after a siege and capitulation, Chrles confirmed Lucera in all its original privileges in exchange for a substantial levy.

And now let us return to the matter of Charles and Sicily and see how he became its king.

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http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/charles-and-sicily-part-1_01166183684.html

An illegitimate son of Frederick, Manfred, was acting as regent for Conradin in Sicily (son of Manfred's legitimate brother Conrad IV). Manfred had designs on enlarging his rule. He planned a coup in Rome to deal with papal power, but the Guelphs made Charles a senator to gain his support. This seemed to go against Charles' promise to Urban not to accept any power in Italy itself, and Roman cardinals complained about him to Urban. Urban wouldn't go back on his support of Charles, however, because he needed to rely on Charles' military might.

Urban declared a Crusade against Manfred, and two cardinals went to France to gain support for it. One of the cardinals, Guy Foulquois, became Pope Clement IV in February 1265 after the death of Urban. He convinced Charles to hold Sicily (if he could take it) as a vassal of the pope in exchange for 8,000 ounces of gold annually. Charles agreed to the money, since he'd rule Sicily as he saw fit anyway.

They even promised him the whole of the Regno as the pope's vassal, and on 21 June 1265 Charles was installed as a senator. Clement helped him to borrow more from Italian bankers to finance the conquest of Sicily. To make everything formal, on 5 January 1266 he was crowned by five cardinals as King of Sicily (see illustration). Now all he had to do was take control of the island itself.

Several days later, many thousands of soldiers and cavalry arrived in Rome from France and Provence. By the end of January, he was marching south from Rome with the army to start the conquest of the southern Italy part of the Regno. After crossing the Apennines to get to the town of Benevento, they were attacked by Manfred's army on 26 February. Charles defeated Manfred's army, and Manfred himself was killed.

The rest of the Regno quickly capitulated, including a Muslim colony in Lucera.

Charles sent Philip of Montfort to Sicily, where Manfred's widow and family were captured. The widow, Helena of Epirus, had come with a dowry of the island of Corfu. Charles had his troops seize Corfu within the year.

Conradin was still alive, though, and with a claim to Sicily from his father. He would have to be dealt with.

Let's have a short intermission, however, and talk about the sixth paragraph above: the Muslim community of Lucera.

http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/charles-and-sicily-part-1_01166183684.html

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http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/charles-and-sicily-part-1.html

Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II died in 1250. Frederick had been King of the Regno, which comprised Sicily and southern Italy almost all the way up to Rome (its coat of arms is shown here). Upon his death, Pope Innocent IV declared that the Regno reverted to control by the Vatican. The Vatican, however, would need a strong military force to keep it under Vatican control.

Innocent offered the Regno to Richard of Cornwall, uncle to King Henry III of England. Frederick's son Conrad IV of Germany also claimed the Regno, and Richard did not relish a war against Conrad, so declined. Provence was fairly close, and Innocent turned to Charles, but Charles' older brother, King Louis IX of France, told Charles to stay out of it because Louis recognized Conrad as the rightful heir.

Charles declined the offer formally in October 1253. A year earlier, Queen Blanche had died, and Louis made Charles and their brother Alphonse co-regents of France so that Louis could stay fighting in the Holy Land.

Meanwhile, in Provence, another rebellion rose, led by Boniface of Castellane and supported by Charles' mother-in-law, Beatrice of Savoy. We know some of Boniface's actions through poems written about different phases of the rebellion. Boniface raised arms against Charles in Marseille, but this time a previous rebel and friend, Barral of Baux, stayed loyal to Charles and helped suppress the revolt. Boniface was exiled and went to Spain where he tried to raise allies against Charles. Marseilles had its fortifications dismantled so that it could no longer resist the ruler.

As for Beatrice, Louis returned from the Holy Land and persuaded her to return Forcalquier to Charles and pay restitution of 160,000 marks over the next 13 years.

But what of Sicily? In 1258 the Regno got a king, Manfred, an illegitimate son of Frederick. While Innocent was looking for someone to take over the Regno, Manfred had been there, suppressing rebellions and attempting to rule, but stepping aside when legitimate son Conrad IV showed up in 1252. Conrad died in 1254, leaving his young son Conradin with Manfred as regent.

In 1263, it looked like Manfred might use the Regno as a base to make himself Holy Roman Emperor, leaving Conradin in Sicily. This concerned Pope Urban IV, who like his predecessor offered the kingdom to Charles. This time, Louis supported the idea of Charles invading Italy and Sicily. Upon this news, Manfred declared himself heir to the Holy Roman. Empire, setting up the final clash.

See you tomorrow.

http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/charles-and-sicily-part-1.html

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http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/the-start-of-charles-reign.html

Preparations had been underway in France for a Crusade (the Seventh), and Charles joined his brother along with their other brothers, Robert and Alphonse. They did not depart until 25 August 1248.

While Charles was away, the cities of Arles, Avignon, and Marseilles joined their military forces in an alliance. They chose a leader of their own, Barral of Baux, who had helped negotiate a conflict earlier between Savoy and Provence. Barral's army helped Charles save Beatrice of Provence from the forces of James I of Aragon that had surrounded her, and Barral's army helped guard the wedding of Beatrice and Charles. Now, however, Barral became Charles' rival.

Barral saw Charles' disrespect for the local nobles and was willing to join the rebellion against him. Charles' mother-in-law, Beatrice of Savoy, supported the rebel alliance. But more on that later.

The Seventh Crusade did not go well. Louis was very keen on it, but no one else in Europe was interested or free enough of other concerns to join. The French had to go it alone. They invaded Egypt in early June 1249, capturing Damietta and intending to invade Cairo in November. Charles' older brother Robert was killed in battle in February 1250 (see illustration). While retreating from Egypt, the remaining brothers were captured. Their ransom was the return of Damietta and the payment of 800,000 bezants.

While the army sailed to Acre, Charles showed his callow nature by spending his time gambling while Louis was mourning their brother. This annoyed Louis.

Returning to Provence, Charles continued to have his people make an account of all the towns and his possessions and claims. His decisions to increase his revenue and make demands of towns came up against the rebellion. One particular decision that rankled was the salt tax. We'll learn more about that tomorrow.

http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/the-start-of-charles-reign.html

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http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/charles-beatrice-of-savoy.html

Beatrice of Savoy (1198 - 1267, whose tomb is shown here) was considered not only (according to Matthew Paris) extremely beautiful (like her daughter) but also very smart and politically shrewd. A couple years before the marriage of her daughter and Charles, for instance, she had convinced King Henry III of England to lend 4000 marks to her husband.

She was also involved in the negotiations regarding her daughter's marriage, and now may be a good time to explain what I teased in yesterday's post about that matter.

Because Ramon Berenguer V managed to get his three eldest daughters marriages that led to them being queens, he left the counties of Provence and Forcalquier to his youngest, Beatrice of Provence. When this became known, many powerful men in Europe angled for her hand in marriage.

James I of Aragon was already married to Violant of Hungary, but that was after he annulled a marriage to Eleanor of Castile after eight years (!) and having a son with her. He invaded Provence, because he had designs on Provence from long ago, and actually surrounded Beatrice's castle.

Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II sent his navy to Provence to gain leverage so that he could get Beatrice married to one of his sons. Count Raymond VII of Toulouse (divorced twice already) appealed to Blanche of Castile, mother of King Louis IX of France, for her support to marry young Beatrice. (Raymond's mother and Blanche's mother were sisters, both daughters of King Henry II.)

Blanche, however, was in favor of a different approach. Her youngest son was destined for an ecclesiastical life, but this was an opportunity to give him something more prestigious and tie Provence more closely to France. Blanche, Louis IX, Pope Innocent IV, and the young Charles of Anjou met in 1245 in Cluny. Innocent had many issues with Frederick, and did not want to see Frederick gain any more territory. Innocent was happy to endorse marriage between young Beatrice and Charles in exchange for Louis giving Innocent military support against Frederick.

Mother and daughter were satisfied with the terms, but not everyone was. King Henry III of England had an issue with them, and there was the problem of James I of Aragon, who was parked outside Beatrice's residence and would need to be dealt with. How that went will be a subject for tomorrow.

http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/charles-beatrice-of-savoy.html

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http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/charles-jerusalem.html

Charles might have been emboldened by a few things. It was understood that Maria had the better claim than Hugh III of Cyprus, Pope Gregory X had felt her claim strong enough to authorize an investigation into the situation, and Gregory apparently had a low opinion of Hugh. Also, Gregory wanted a new Crusade, and Charles had a strong military at his command.

Also, the Knights Templar supported Maria for whatever reason (suggestions are that they thought she would not be a strong military-oriented ruler and the Knights would be able to do as they liked, or that they knew of her interest in selling her claim to Charles and they wanted his military might to fight Muslims).

Gregory X was succeeded by Pope John XXI, who supported Charles.

Charles sent an emissary, Roger of San Severino, to Acre (the capital) to declare Charles' rule. The bailiff of Acre, Balian of Ibelin, Lord of Arsuf, refused to let him enter the citadel. Roger produced documents signed by Charles, Maria, and Pope John XXI authorizing Roger to enter Jerusalem. The Knights Templar and the Venetians also spoke on Roger's behalf. The Knights Hospitaller and the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem would not get involved.

Roger flew Charles' standard above the city and started demanding oaths of loyalty to Charles. The High Court was called upon to determine the propriety of this change. The barons wanted to be released from their oaths of loyalty to Hugh. The kingdom was thrown into chaos at the abrupt change. Roger of San Severino became bailiff of Jerusalem until 1282.

One important point to note is that the reason the position of King of Jerusalem needed to be filled in the first place was because of the death of the young previous king, Conradin, who had ben beheaded in battle a few years before (see illustration). Who beheaded him, you should ask? It was Charles of Anjou, the man who was now declaring himself King of Jerusalem!

What? How? Why was Charles like this? We owe it to ourselves to take a closer look at this man and his effect on Europe and the Holy Land. We'll start that journey next time.

http://dailymedieval.blogspot.com/2026/04/charles-jerusalem.html